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Boeing 314 Clipper

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"Boeing Clipper" redirects here. For the 737 variant, see Boeing C-40 Clipper.
Boeing 314 Clipper
A Boeing 314 flying low
General information
TypeFlying boat airliner
National originUnited States
ManufacturerBoeing Airplane Company
StatusRetired
Primary usersPan American World Airways
Number built12
History
Manufactured1938 (1938)–1941 (1941)
Introduction date1939
(85 years ago) (1939)
First flightJune 7, 1938
(86 years ago) (1938-06-07)
Retired1948
(76 years ago) (1948)

The Boeing 314 Clipper was an American long-range flying boat produced by Boeing from 1938 to 1941. One of the largest aircraft of its time, it had the range to cross the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. For its wing, Boeing re-used the design from the earlier XB-15 bomber prototype. Twelve Clippers were built, nine of which served with Pan Am.

Development

[edit]
The Yankee Clipper in 1939

Background

[edit]

As early as 1935 Pan American had identified that a truly trans-Pacific flying boat with unprecedented range and double the passenger payload of the airline's Martin M-130 would be required particularly if they were to provide a service across the longer more difficult Atlantic route and requested proposals from a number of American manufacturers.[1]

In February 1936, not long after the M-130s were introduced into service, Pan Am launched a design competition for the first transoceanic airliner. Boeing, Douglas, Consolidated, Martin and Sikorsky were requested to provide preliminary studies and proposals for a long-range, four engine, marine aircraft. The new plane had to be able to transport up to 10,000 pounds of payload with a minimum range of 2,400 miles and cruise speed of 150 mph at an altitude of 10,000 feet.[2] Pan Am was also adamant about providing comfort, space, and luxury for their passengers, as well as providing the ultimate in safety. Martin proposed a larger modified version of their M-130 called the M-156 which would offer a longer range and bigger payload with either a 53 day or 26 sleeper configuration.[1] Sikorsky proposed their S-45 whose six engines promised a 52,000 lb payload, but the first aircraft wouldn’t be available until late 1939 or early 1940 and it would cost more than the other proposals.[1]

Boeing’s submission

[edit]

After receiving the Pan American request on 28 February 1936, Boring decided to not submit a proposal as at the time the company's resources were committed on simultaneous contracts for the United States Army Air Corps.[3][4] The deadline had passed when a young Boeing engineer Wellwood E. Beall became aware of the Pan American project and thought that Boeing should consider submitting a bid.[4][5][6] Beall had had just returned to the United States in 1935 from serving as the company’s Far Eastern manager with responsibility for selling the company's fighter and transport planes to the Chinese Government.[7] During his time in China he had often thought about the design of a large flying boat and he now worked in his spare time on a preliminary design.[4] As Pan American had specified the engines and propellers in advance, Beall proposed to use the wing of the cancelled XB-15 bomber, which had already been designed and wind-tunnel tested; this would allow Boeing to confine the design effort to the hull and the flotation stability and tail assemblies.[6][4] To supplement his preliminary design study, his then wife, well-known artist and muralist Jean Cory Beall, produced colour paintings of the cabin interiors. His proposal was accepted by Boeing management and he was given permission to request an extension from Pan American, which was granted.[4][8][9]

Beall was transferred to the engineering department and allocated 11 engineers to work on the project.[2][4] The engineering team calculated that the optimum wingspan for the flying boat needed to 152 ft (46 m) compared with the XB-15’s 149 ft (45 m). The shortfall was overcome by adding 36 in (914 mm) to the width of the fuselage.[10] He combined the wing with more powerful Wright R-2600 Twin Cyclone engines, each of which produced 50% more power than the 850 hp (630 kW) of the XB-15’s Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp engines.[11] The XB-15’s engine nacelles were also retained as they had originally been designed to house 2,600 hp (1,900 kW) Allison V-3420 liquid-cooled W engines, which since these were not ready, had been replaced on the bomber by the smaller and less powerful Pratt & Whitneys.[4] The engineers estimated that their proposed design would weigh 40,000 lbs and could carry a payload of up to 42,500 lbs.[1] Sufficient work was completed by May 1936 for Beall, company president Claire Egtvedt, aerodynamicist Ralph LaVenture Cram (1906-1939) to depart on 9 May 1936 from Seattle to New York where they made a presentation of their proposal to Pan American.[4]

Pan American accepted Boeing’s proposal, awarding them a $4.8 million contract on 21 July 1936 for six aircraft with an option for six more.[4][2] This order represented the first that Pan American had placed with the company. The first aircraft was to be delivered by 21 December 1937.[1] An amendment to the contract on 20 January 1937 granted a three month extension to the specified delivery date for the first six aircraft.[4] The original six 314s cost an average of $668,908 at a time when a DC-3 cost $115,000.[12] In addition, Pan American purchased $756,450 of spares.[12]

As well as issues thrown up by complexity of the design and testing the first delivery was impacted by the passing of the Civil Aeronautics Act in 1938 which established the Civil Aeronautics Board which had the power to review and certify new aircraft. As a result, Boeing missed its contracted delivery date by 13 months.

Testing

[edit]
Boeing Model 314 NX18601 flying over Elliot Bay

There was no dedicated prototype, instead the first production unit NX-18601 was used for testing. Once completed it was launched into the Duwamish Waterway and towed to Elliott Bay on Puget Sound for taxi and flight tests.[2] Its wingspan was so great that it had to be turned diagonally to pass through the supports of bridges spanning the waterway.[13] From here it commenced its first taxiing run on 3 June with test pilot Edmund T. Allen at the controls, but he soon identified that it was too lightly loaded when a gust of wind lifted one wing and dipped the other and after increasing the engine power failed to correct the situation it became necessary for all spare crew members to climb out onto the raised wing to balance the aircraft and allow it to safely return to shore.[14] Following the installation of temporary ballast further taxiing tests continued for a week.[2]

The first test flight was undertaken by Allen on the 7 June 1938 and once airborne it was immediately identified that the aircraft had insufficient rudder control.[14][15] He was only able to turn the aircraft by increasing the power of the engines on one wing and decreasing that of the engines on the other. This first flight lasted 38 minutes.[13] This directional instability had been observed during wind tunnel tests but Boeing management had rejected any changes to the original single fin configuration to correct it.[4] NX-18601 was immediately modified into a twin fin configuration, but this was still found to be insufficient and so the centerline vertical fin was restored, which resolved the issue and this three fin arrangement became the production configuration.[14][16]

Months of extensive testing continued and on 26 January 1939, the 314 was approved the Civil Aeronautics Board for commercial airworthiness.[17]

Design

[edit]

The 314 was a high wing flying boat which used a series of heavy metal ribs and spars to create a robust fuselage and cantilevered wing, eliminating the need for external drag-inducing struts to brace the wings. It was metal skinned with the exception of the control surfaces.

The aircraft were assembled at Boeing's Plant 1 on the Duwamish River in Seattle. The design required the production of 6,00 engineering drawings, 50,000 separate parts, 11 miles of electrical wiring, 576,000 rivets[18] and 15,200 bolts.[14]

Engines

[edit]

The original six 314s were powered by four air-cooled, supercharged Wright Aeronautical Corporation Cyclone 14 GR2600A2, two-row, 14-cylinder radial engines.[4][19] The six 314A’s had the more powerful Cyclone 14 GR2600A2A engines.[19] These engines were subsequently retrofitted to the original 314s during engine overhauls.

Commonly known as “Twin Cyclones”) these engines were the first to use 100 octane gasoline in commercial service.[4] The 314 was the first use of this engine, which at the time was not only the largest engine installed on a commercial aircraft, but also offered the lowest specific fuel consumption.[4]

Engine Specification
Model GR2600A2[19][4] GR2600A2A[19][20]
Specification 332 579[4]
Used in Boeing 314[19][4] Boeing 314, 314A[19]
Sea level rating – Take off 1,550 hp (1,160 kW) at 2,400 revs[19] 1,600 hp (1,200 kW) at 2,400 revs[19]
Sea level rating - Normal 1,200 hp (890 kW) at 2,100 revs[19] 1,350 hp (1,010 kW) at 2,300 revs[19]
Weight 1,935 pounds (878 kg)[19] 1,935 pounds (878 kg)[19]
Length 62.06 inches (157.6 cm)[19] 62.06 inches (157.6 cm) [19]
Diameter (height) 55 inches (140 cm)[19] 55 inches (140 cm)[19]
Reduction gear ratio 16:9[19][21] 16:9[19][21]
Supercharger ratio 7.4:1[19] 7:1[19]
Compression ratio 7.1:1[19] 6.8:1[19]
Fuel grade (Octane) 91/96[19] 95[19]

The engines drove Hamilton Standard hydromatic full-feathering constant-speed propellers through reduction gears.[21] The development of these propellers had been fostered by Pan American. In a first for commercial operation these offered both variable pitch and full-feathering which meant that in the event of an engine fault the three blades of the 14 feet (4.3 m) diameter propellers could be turned directly into the airflow and so would not rotate and risk further damaging the engine by “windmilling”.[4] Turning the blades into the airflow also reduced drag which was important on long flights over water.[4] On the GR2600A2 engines the propellers had a diameter of 14 feet (4.3 m), while on the GR2600A2A, they had a diameter of 14 feet 10 inches (4.52 m)[22] and when installed in 1940 they featured the first NACA propeller aerofoil sections on a commercial aircraft.[23] The 314 featured the first use of rate of flow fuel meters when they were installed in 1939 at the engineer’s station as a permanent fitting on an aircraft. Previously they had been only installed as a temporary device during testing. Pan American had supported their development.

Fuel capacity

[edit]

To fly the long ranges needed for trans-Pacific service, the 314 carried 4,246 US gallons (16,070 L; 3,536 imp gal) of gasoline. The later 314A model carried a further 1,200 US gallons (4,500 L; 1,000 imp gal). A capacity of 300 US gallons (1,100 L; 250 imp gal) of oil was required for operation of the radial engines.

Wings

[edit]

The wings were constructed in five sections of an aluminum outer skin formed over spars constructed out of bolted square aluminum alloy tube trusses while the ribs were formed out of aluminum alloy tubes and channels. It had a NACA 0018 airfoil profile at their root which changed to a NACA 0010 profile at their tip.[24] The outer ends of the wings were made watertight, which allowed them to provide flotation if the aircraft heeled over in rough conditions.[4]

The wings were thick enough to incorporate a crawlspace, through which each engine nacelle could be accessed by a flight engineer. After removing the two sections of the stainless-steel firewall behind each engine, they could service and if possible repair it in flight, as the fully-feathering propellors made it possible for an engine to be completely shut down. Between June 1939 and June 1941, 431 in-flight engine repairs were performed.[5] The most common problem was fouled spark plugs. Each nacelle had a side access door on either side which opened downwards and which could be used as work platforms.[4] Each aircraft also carried portable work platforms that could be hung on the outside, forward of the access doors to allow work on the engines.[4] The centre sections of each wing contained two fuel tanks as well as compartments for transport of cargo, in particular mail.[4]

The wings were fitted with metal-framed fabric-covered "split" type flaps located under each wings trailing edge. When taking off the flaps were set to 20 degrees and when landing their full deflection of 60 degrees was typically used.[4] The metal-framed fabric-covered [[aileron]s were of the Frieze type, each having a single trim tab divided into two separate units to reduce any binding of the aileron’s hinge when the wing flexed under load.

Hull

[edit]

The 12 feet 6 inches (3.81 m) wide hull was of all metal construction and differed from previous flying boats in that the lower central section was constructed as an integral section with the wings and inner engine nacelles.[4] The remaining parts of the hull were separately constructed in sections and then attached to it. Instead of the hull being split into numerous watertight compartments the hull had only two full height watertight bulkheads, a front collision bulkhead ahead of the flight deck and a compartmented double bottom.[4]

The 314 had a transverse hydroplane step just to the rear of the centre of gravity with a second step, farther aft which terminated on the original 314’s at a rudder for steering the flying boat when it was in the water.[4] This rudder was subsequently removed and was not fitted to the 314As as it was found in service that the aircraft could be steered in the water by varying the power to the engines on each side.

The lower mid hull of the 314 was fitted with Dornier-style sponsons.[25] These sponsons, broad lateral extensions at the waterline on both sides of the hull, served several purposes: They provided a wide platform to stabilize the craft while on the water, they acted as a platform for boarding and exiting, and they possessed an intentional air foil shape which contributed additional aerodynamic lift in flight. Each was divided into five compartments, two of which were used as fuel tanks. Each sponson had sufficient reserve buoyancy to maintain stability if once of the compartment filled with water.[4] The fuselage drew 4 feet (1.2 m) of water.[4]

The tail section consisted of a metal-skinned horizontal stabilizer on those centre was a single central metal-frame fabric covered fin and on each outboard end, a metal-skinned outboard fully cantilevered fin. The metal skinned stabilizer was built as a single unit and was bolted directly to the top of the hull with a streamline fairing for it. The metal-frame fabric-covered elevators fitted to on each end of the stabilizer were so large and heavy that in a first they were fitted with separate control and trim tabs on each side. The control tab had twice the effectiveness of the trim tab. Springs, which gave a degree of "feel" proportional to elevator movement were incorporated in the connections to the pilot’s controls moved the tabs, which in turn moved the elevators. At high angles of movement the spring became rigid and further elevator movement was directly from the control column. While not aerodynamically balanced the elevators were statically balanced to 85% by a counterweight in the hull and by smaller weights on their outboard ends.[4] The metal-frame fabric covered rudders used the same spring-controlled tab system as the elevators and incorporated a small degree of aerodynamic balance.

Interior

[edit]

At the front was a bow compartment containing a 91 pounds (41 kg) pound anchor and 150 feet (46 m) of rope for tie off the aircraft. Access was via a hatch on each side of the nose, while a smaller top hatch allowed a crewman to attach either a towing line, mooring line or anchor line to two removable vertical mooring posts.[4] From this compartment a gangway led up to the cockpit on the upper deck.[26] At the rear of the compartment there were four tube and canvas bunks for the crew that folded up into the walls of the collision bulkhead.[4]

Behind it were two decks, an upper and a lower deck.

Upper deck

[edit]

On the upper deck was the flight deck, cargo hold, crew quarters, a toilet and baggage compartments. On the roof of the flight deck was two pitot tubes and a retractable spotlight. The large flight deck was 21 feet 4 inches (6.50 m) long and 9 feet 6 inches (2.90 m) wide with full headroom throughout. At the front was the cockpit. The captain sat in the left and the co-pilot to the right. Between the pilots was a hatch leading down into the bow compartment. Behind the cockpit (which could be closed off by heavy curtains at night to prevent light from the rest of the flight deck reducing the pilot’s night vision) was the flight operations room. On the left-hand side of the flight operations room was the navigator's 7 feet (2.1 m) long chart table, followed by a small conference table. On the right) side was a circular staircase that led down to the lower deck. Behind this was the radio operator's station, followed by the flight engineer’s station.

On either side of the flight operations room were oval hatches that led to the crawlspaces in the respective wings. On the rear bulkhead was the door to the cargo hold which was located in the centre of the wing over the centre of gravity. The heaviest cargo was stored here with space left for the crew to pass through. Outside access to the cargo compartment was via a hatch in the top of the wing, the hatch also incorporating a celestial observation dome.[4] The navigator used this dome to make sightings on the stars with his sextant. The dome’s location at the 314’s centre of gravity assisted in making these sightings as steady as possible, while the red light in this compartment allowed reading of the sextant without impacting on the navigator’s night vision. If clouds prevented a reading then a straight course could be maintained by employing dead reckoning. To compensate for wind blowing the aircraft sideways the drift could be estimated by dropping a flare into the water through a small hatch in each wing root. By carefully watching the flare to see if it stayed in line with the tail of the aircraft or moved to one side or the other, the navigator could estimate the drift.

Behind the cargo compartment was the crew quarters where the crew had the use of three tube and canvas bunks on which to sleep.[4] Behind the upper deck’s crew quarters was an area for storage of the passenger’s luggage.

Passenger deck

[edit]
The California Clipper at Cavite, the Philippines, 1940

The lower deck was divided into 11 sections, five standard passenger compartments, a deluxe compartment, a dining lounge, gallery, ladies restroom and men's room. In the aft compartments there was a step between each as their floor level rose due to the curvature of the bottom of the aircraft.

Each standard compartment could seat 10 or sleep six, with four sleeping on the right (starboard) side in two upper and lower berths, while on the left (port) side there was a single upper and lower, each fitted with a privacy curtains. it took a steward 30 minutes to convert each compartment into its sleeping configuration.[26] The deluxe compartment which was also known as the “bridal suite” was located at the extreme rear of the deck and contained a three-cushion davenport that could be converted into upper and lower sleeping berths. Also there was a love seat, a coffee table a small leather covered dressing and writing table, a beige stool, a mirror, a wardrobe and a concealed wash basin.[27]

The ladies restroom contained a mirror, a sink with hot and cold running water, towels, tissues, two leather upholstered swivel stools and behind a door, a separate toilet.[27] The men's room had an outlet for an electric razor, while its attached toilet room had both a toilet and a urinal. Water for flushing of the toilets was from an overhead tank, with all waste flushed overboard.[27]

The dining lounge had seating for 11 passengers during daytime with small pullout tables on which to accommodate their drinks and snacks. In the evening the furniture converted into a formal dining configuration which could seat 14 passengers at five tables, with meals served with linen tablecloths, crystal glasses, and full waiter service.[27] Two drinking fountains were provided on each aircraft.

The 4 feet (1.2 m) square gallery had a linoleum covered floor, a 12-inch (300 mm) by 10-inch (250 mm) aluminum sink, a drip coffee maker, an aluminum icebox, a combination stove and steamer, a cabinet contained a two-tiered dish rack capable of accommodating 200 fine China plates, two glass and cup racks, a saucer rack, eight drawers and a waste bin.[28] A separate cabinet held 350 Gorham sterling-silver “Moderen” pattern cutlery, a silver-plated tea set and ten pairs of sterling salt and pepper shakers.[28] There were approximately 1,000 serving items, which weighed a total of 235 pounds (107 kg), with typically 256 pounds (116 kg) of food carried.[28] Valuables and passenger passports were housed in one of three lockable cabinets.

Norman Bel Geddes who had designed the interior of Pan Am’s Martin M-130 was employed to design the interior of the 314.[27] Wherever possible efforts were made to reduce weight. Duralumin was used in the furniture frames and plastic in the portholes rather than glass. lightweight carpet was used to assist in noise damping. The cushions were made of latex with mixed with horsehair from Australia. Howard Ketcham, a colour expert from New York assisted in the selection of colours that would complement Bel Geddes’ design and also to reflect light, yet control brightness and create the impression of openness to reduce any feelings of claustrophobia.[27] This resulted in the use of colours called Miami Sand Beige, Pan American Blue and Skyline Green. A window blinds were of accordion pleated roller design was manufactured by Claude D. Carver Company of New York that used a washable material called “Tontine”.[27]

Auxiliary equipment

[edit]

The aircraft’s electrical system was of the direct current type, powered by two 15 volt generators supported by two 12 volt batteries to provide both 12 volts and 24 volts. The 314 had an extensive suite of radio equipment, which was housed in three different locations. Normally powered by the main electrical system it could in the event of a loss of this supply be powered from a self-contained emergency generator. The radio equipment as well as other specialised equipment was provided by Pan American, with their staff at the Boeing’s factory assisting in its installation and commissioning. The aircraft was fitted with a heating and cooling system that could deliver 360,000 BTUs per hour from manifolds around engine exhausts and 170,000 cubic feet of air per hour. The aircraft was fitted with a system that could detect any leakage of carbon dioxide from the engines into the interior of the aircraft.

Safety features

[edit]

The aircraft had 15 different methods of exiting the aircraft in an emergency, with each passenger compartment having two. With the exception of the fuel tank hatches, all hatches on the aircraft could be opened without threatening the structural integratory of the aircraft. Emergency equipment was stored in the nose compartment including at least two weeks of canned food for all the passengers, stored water, life rafts, and fishing and hunting tackle. Each passenger seat had a lifejacket, with the aircraft equipped with axes, flares, ring-type life preservers and rope. There were also eight 10-person life rafts, four of which could be accessed from outside of the aircraft. To reduce the risk of fire Boeing made efforts wherever possible to use fireproof materials in the cabins, most notably in the insulation, upholstery and wall linings.

Service levels

[edit]

Pan Am's "Clippers" were built for "one-class" luxury air travel, a necessity given the long duration of transoceanic flights. In 1940, Pan Am's scheduled time from San Francisco to Honolulu was 19 hours, with a cruising speed of 188 miles per hour (303 km/h), although flights at maximum gross weight were typically flown at 155 miles per hour (249 km/h). Clipper service catered to elite businessmen and the wealthy traveler. The 314s had a lounge and dining area, and the galleys were crewed by chefs from four-star hotels. Men and women were provided with separate dressing rooms, and white-coated stewards served five and six-course meals with gleaming silver service. The seats could be converted into 36 bunks for overnight accommodation. The standard of luxury on Pan American's Boeing 314s has rarely been matched on heavier-than-air transport since then. A round trip from New York to Southampton was $675 (equivalent to $15,000 in 2023),[29] while a one-way ticket from San Francisco to Hong Kong via the "stepping-stone" islands cost $760 (equivalent to $16,000 in 2023).[30] The Pan Am Boeing 314 Clippers brought exotic destinations like the Far East within reach of air travelers and came to represent the romance of flight. Most of the flights were transpacific, while transatlantic flights to neutral Lisbon and Ireland continued after war broke out in Europe in September 1939 (and until 1945), but military passengers and cargoes necessarily got priority, and the service was more spartan.

Equally critical to the 314's success was the proficiency of its Pan Am flight crews, who were extremely skilled at long-distance, over-water flight operations and navigation. For training, many of the transpacific flights carried a second crew.[31] Only the very best and most experienced flight crews were assigned Boeing 314 flying boat duty. Before coming aboard, all Pan Am captains as well as first and second officers had thousands of hours of flight time in other seaplanes and flying boats. Rigorous training in dead reckoning, timed turns, judging drift from sea current, celestial navigation, and radio navigation were conducted. In conditions of poor or no visibility, pilots sometimes made successful landings at fogged-in harbors by landing out to sea, then taxiing the 314 into port.[32]

Operational history

[edit]
Boeing 314 in US Navy colors, c. 1942
Boeing 314 Clipper in Shediac Bay, c. 1941
Flown "triptych" cover carried around the world on PAA Boeing 314 Clippers and Imperial Airways Short S23 flying boats June 24 – July 28, 1939

Entry into service

[edit]

The first aircraft to be delivered was NC18602 which was flown on 27 January 1939 by Boeing test pilot Earl Ferguson and Wellwood Bell as co-pilot from Lake Washington to Astoria in Oregon.[17] It was delivered to Pan American in Oregon in order to avoid a Washington state tax, which had been introduced during the Depression to increase state revenues.[17] It was accepted by Captains Harold E. Gray and Charles Vaughn and flown by them to Pan American’s base at San Francisco. The remaining five aircraft were delivered at approximately monthly intervals, the last on 16 June 1939.[17] NC18501 and NC18602 were assigned to the Pacific and the others four to the Atlantic.[17] As with all new designs there were a number of issues which required modifications to the aircraft. As a result it wasn’t until the end of July 1939 before the 314s were able to offer a full service on the Pacific routes.[17]

The first 314 flight on the San Francisco-Hong Kong route left Alameda on February 23, 1939 with regular passenger and Foreign Air Mail Route #14 service beginning on March 29.[33][34][35] A one-way trip on this route took over six days to complete. Commercial passenger service lasted less than three years, ending when the United States entered World War II in December 1941. Passengers and their baggage were weighed, with each passenger allowed up to 77 pounds (35 kg) free baggage allowance (in the later 314 series) but then charged $3.25 per pound ($7.2/kg) (equivalent to $70 in 2023) for exceeding the limit.[36]

The Yankee Clipper flew across the Atlantic on a route from Southampton to Port Washington, New York with intermediate stops at Foynes in Ireland, Botwood in Newfoundland, and Shediac, New Brunswick. The inaugural trip occurred on June 24, 1939.

The success of the six initial Clippers had led Pan Am to place an order for six improved 314A models to be delivered in 1941, with the goal of doubling the service on both Atlantic and Pacific routes. However, the fall of France in 1940 caused some doubt about whether the Atlantic service could continue; passenger numbers were already reduced by the war, and if Spain or Portugal were to join the Axis, then the flights to Lisbon would be forced to stop. Pan Am began to consider reducing its order and, in August 1940, reached an agreement to sell three of the six under construction to the United Kingdom. The aircraft were to be operated by the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) and were primarily intended for the UK – West Africa route, as existing flying boats could not travel this route without stopping in Lisbon. The sale made a small net profit for Pan Am – priced at cost plus 5% – and provided a vital communications link for Britain, but was politically controversial. In order to arrange the sale, the junior minister Harold Balfour had to agree to the contract with no government approval, leading to stern disapproval from Winston Churchill and lengthy debate by the Cabinet over the propriety of the purchase.[37] Churchill later flew on the Bristol and Berwick in January 1942 from Washington, D.C. to England,[38] and he praised the plane intensely,[37] adding to the Clippers' fame during the war.[39]

At the outbreak of the war in the Pacific in December 1941, the Pacific Clipper was en route to New Zealand from San Francisco. Rather than risk flying back to Honolulu and being shot down by Japanese fighters, it was directed to fly west to New York. Starting on December 8, 1941 at Auckland, New Zealand, the Pacific Clipper covered over 31,500 mi (50,700 km) via locations including Surabaya, Karachi, Bahrain, Khartoum and Leopoldville. The Pacific Clipper landed at Pan American's LaGuardia Field seaplane base at 7:12 on the morning of January 6, 1942.[40]

Wartime service

[edit]

Pan Am's Clipper fleet was pressed into US military service during World War II, and the flying boats were used for ferrying personnel and equipment to the European and Pacific fronts. The aircraft were purchased by the War and Navy Departments and leased back to Pan Am for a dollar, with the understanding that all would be operated by the Navy once four-engined replacements for the Army's four Clippers were in service. Only the markings on the aircraft changed: The Clippers continued to be flown by their experienced Pan Am civilian crews. American military cargo was carried via Natal, Brazil to Liberia, to supply the British forces at Cairo and even the Russians, via the Persian Corridor. The Model 314 was then the only aircraft in the world that could make the 2,150-statute-mile (3,460 km) crossing over water.[41] The Army gave the aircraft the designation C-98, but the Navy—which used a different designation system at the time—disregarded this designation and operated the aircraft under the company designation B-314.[42] In February 1942, forty women were hired by Pan Am to replace male mechanics in the hangars at LaGuardia to perform service, repair and overhaul of the Clippers for the European service.[43] Maintenance demands were such that it took "141 mechanics, working three 8-hour shifts, to perform in two days the complete inspection of servicing routine which must be carried out before a Clipper just in from Europe can be sent on the return trip."[44] Since the Pan Am pilots and crews had extensive expertise in using flying boats for extreme long-distance over-water flights, the company's pilots and navigators continued to serve as flight crew. In 1943, President Franklin D. Roosevelt traveled to the Casablanca Conference in a Pan-Am crewed Boeing 314 Dixie Clipper.[38]

After the war, several Clippers were returned to Pan American hands. However, even before hostilities had ended, the Clipper had become obsolete. The flying boat's advantage had been that it did not require long concrete runways, but during the war many such runways had been built for heavy bombers.[38] New long-range airliners such as the Lockheed Constellation and Douglas DC-4 were relatively easy to fly, and did not require the extensive pilot training programs mandated for seaplane operations. One of the 314's most experienced pilots said, "We were indeed glad to change to DC-4s, and I argued daily for eliminating all flying boats. The landplanes were much safer. No one in the operations department... had any idea of the hazards of flying boat operations. The main problem now was lack of the very high level of experience and competence required of seaplane pilots."[45]

Retirement

[edit]
BOAC Clipper Berwick landing at Lagos, Nigeria.

The last Pan Am 314 to be retired, the California Clipper NC18602, in 1946, had accumulated more than a million flight miles.[46] Of the 12 Boeing 314 Clippers built, three were lost to accidents, although only one of those resulted in fatalities: 24 passengers and crew aboard the Yankee Clipper NC18603 lost their lives in a landing accident at Cabo Ruivo Seaplane Base, in Lisbon, Portugal on February 22, 1943.[47] Among that flight's passengers were prominent American author and war correspondent Benjamin Robertson, who was killed, and the American singer and actress Jane Froman, who was seriously injured.[48]

Pan-Am's 314 was removed from scheduled service in 1946 and the seven serviceable 314s were purchased by the start-up airline New World Airways. These sat at San Diego's Lindbergh Field for a long time before all were eventually sold for scrap in 1950. The last of the fleet, the Anzac Clipper NC18611(A), was resold and scrapped at Baltimore, Maryland in late 1951.

BOAC's 314As were withdrawn from the Baltimore-to-Bermuda route in January 1948, replaced by Lockheed Constellations flying from New York and Baltimore to Bermuda.[49]

Variants

[edit]
Model 314
Initial production version with 1,500 horsepower (1,100 kW) Twin Cyclone engines, six built for Pan Am.
Model 314A
Improved version with 1,600 horsepower (1,200 kW) Twin Cyclones with larger-diameter propellers, additional 1,200 US gallons (4,500 L; 1,000 imp gal) fuel capacity, and revised interior. Still air range approx 4,700 miles.[50] Six built, three for Pan Am and three sold to BOAC.
B-314
Five Model 314s pressed into military service with the U.S. Navy
C-98
Four Model 314s pressed into military service with the U.S. Army Air Forces

Operators

[edit]
 United States
 United Kingdom
Aircraft operated by Pan Am
Registration Type Name In service Remarks
NC18601 314 Honolulu Clipper 1939–1945 Successfully landed 650 miles east of Oahu after losing power in two engines while flying for the US Navy on November 3, 1945. Aircraft mechanics from the escort carrier Manila Bay were unable to repair the engines at sea. The seaplane tender San Pablo attempted towing into port; but the flying boat was damaged in a collision with the tender and deliberately sunk on November 14 by Oerlikon 20 mm gunfire after salvage was deemed impractical.[16]
NC18602 314 California Clipper 1939–1950 Flew from Auckland to New York in 1941–1942.[40] Sold to World Airways after World War II and was scrapped in 1950.
NC18603 314 Yankee Clipper 1939–1943 Started transatlantic mail service. Crashed on February 22, 1943, when a wing hit the water during a turn on landing at Lisbon, Portugal. A total of 24 of 39 on board were killed.[51]
NC18604 314 Atlantic Clipper 1939–1946 Purchased by the US Navy in 1942, but operated by Pan Am; salvaged for parts.
NC18605 314 Dixie Clipper 1939–1950 Started transatlantic passenger service, later sold to World Airways. First presidential flight, when she flew Franklin D. Roosevelt to the Casablanca Conference in January 1943. Scrapped 1950.
NC18606 314 American Clipper 1939–1946 Later sold to World Airways. Scrapped 1950.
NC18609 314A Pacific Clipper 1941–1946 Temporarily named California Clipper to replace 18602 that was being moved to Atlantic service, renamed Pacific Clipper in 1942. Later sold to Universal Airlines. Damaged by storm and salvaged for parts.
NC18611 314A Anzac Clipper 1941–1951 Sold to Universal Airlines 1946, American International Airways 1947, World Airways 1948. Sold privately 1951, destroyed at Baltimore, Maryland 1951.
NC18612 314A Cape Town Clipper 1941–1946 Sold to US Navy 1942, American International Airways 1947. As the Bermuda Sky Queen she ran out of fuel while crossing the Atlantic on a westward flight, and ditched at sea about 500 miles east of Gander on October 14, 1947. After the rescue of all passengers and crew, she was sunk by the United States Coast Guard as a hazard to navigation.[52]
Aircraft operated by BOAC
Registration Type Name In service Remarks
G-AGBZ 314A (#2081) Bristol 1941–1948 Originally NC18607, sold to General Phoenix Corporation, Baltimore as NC18607 in 1948
G-AGCA 314A (#2082) Berwick 1941–1948 Originally NC18608, sold to General Phoenix Corporation, Baltimore as NC18608 in 1948. This aircraft flew both Winston Churchill and Lord Beaverbrook, Britain's Minister of Supply back urgently to the United Kingdom in mid-January 1942 after the British Prime Minister's extended stay in the United States following the attack on Pearl Harbor. Churchill was the first head of government to make a transatlantic crossing by plane.[53][54][55]
G-AGCB 314A (#2084) Bangor 1941–1948 Originally NC18610, sold to General Phoenix Corporation, Baltimore as NC18610 in 1948

Surviving aircraft

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Full-size replica of a Boeing 314 at the Foynes Flying Boat Museum, County Limerick, Ireland

None of the dozen 314s built between 1939 and 1941 survived beyond 1951, with all 12 being cannibalized for parts, scuttled, scrapped, or otherwise written off. Underwater Admiralty Sciences, a non-profit oceanographic exploration and science research organization based in Kirkland, Washington, announced in 2005, at the 70th Anniversary of the first China Clipper flight in San Francisco, its plans to survey, photograph, and possibly recover the remains of the hulls of two sunken 314s: NC18601 (Honolulu Clipper), scuttled in the Pacific Ocean in 1945; and NC18612 (Bermuda Sky Queen, formerly Cape Town Clipper), sunk in the Atlantic by the Coast Guard in 1947. UAS has also spent significant time at Pan Am reunions and with individual crewmembers and employees of Pan Am conducting videotaped interviews for the mission's companion documentary.[56][57] However, as of 2014, no search or recovery had been attempted, with the most recent news from 2011 suggesting that the company was still in need of at least US$8 million to get the plan under way.[58]

There is a life-size 314 mockup at the Foynes Flying Boat Museum, Foynes, County Limerick, Ireland, located on the site of the original transatlantic flying-boat terminus.[59]

Specifications (314A Clipper)

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Data from Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War II[60]

General characteristics

  • Crew: 11, including 2 cabin stewards
  • Capacity: 68 day passengers and/or 36 sleeping passengers / 5 short tons (4,536 kg) of mail and or cargo
  • Length: 106 ft (32 m)
  • Wingspan: 152 ft (46 m)
  • Height: 20 ft 4.5 in (6.210 m)
  • Airfoil: root: NACA 0018; tip: NACA 0010[24]
  • Empty weight: 48,400 lb (21,954 kg)
  • Gross weight: 84,000 lb (38,102 kg)
  • Fuel capacity: 5,408 US gal (4,503 imp gal; 20,470 L) in wing and sponson tanks
  • Powerplant: 4 × Wright 709C-14AC1 Twin Cyclone 14-cylinder air-cooled radial piston engines, 1,600 hp (1,200 kW) each
  • Propellers: 3-bladed Hamilton Standard fully-feathering constant-speed propellers

Performance

  • Maximum speed: 210 mph (340 km/h, 180 kn) at 6,200 ft (1,890 m)
  • Cruise speed: 188 mph (303 km/h, 163 kn) at 66.5% power at 11,000 ft (3,353 m)
  • Range: 3,685 mi (5,930 km, 3,202 nmi) normal

Cultural influence

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Inspired by the airplane, Smith Corona designed, manufactured, and marketed a typewriter model they called the Clipper from 1945–1960. The typewriter model's logo prominently featured the Boeing 314 Clipper on the typewriter's body which served as a reminder of the luxury and design of the original airplane.[61]

See also

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Related development

Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era

Related lists

References

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Notes

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  1. ^ a b c d e Trautman, pp. 54-56
  2. ^ a b c d e "The Boeing 314". San Diego Air & Space Museum. Retrieved September 1, 2024.
  3. ^ Griffith, pp. 9, 10, 12
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah Bowers, The Great Clippers, Airpower, November 1977
  5. ^ a b "Boeing B-314". Pan Am Clipper Flying Boats. Retrieved September 6, 2024.
  6. ^ a b Calkins, Kenneth L. (2003). "Boeing's Flying Boat: A Great Adventure in Aviation and a Unique Chapter in Air Transportation History" (PDF). Columbia: The Magazine of Northwest History. 17 (2). Tacoma: Washington State Historical Society.
  7. ^ Devlin, John C. (February 1, 1978). "Wellwood E. Beall, 71, Executive Of Boeing and Designer of Bombers". New York Times. New York. Retrieved September 6, 2024.
  8. ^ "Super Clipper: Introducing Pan Am's Greatest Flying Boat". Great Expectations. Retrieved September 9, 2024.
  9. ^ Johnsen, Frederick (December 11, 2022). "The one and only Boeing XB-15". General Aviation News. Retrieved September 4, 2024.
  10. ^ Johnsen, Frederick (March 13, 2017). "Of Wings & Things Returns". General Aviation News. Retrieved September 9, 2024.
  11. ^ Bowers, Flying the Boeing Clipper Complete Operational History , Wings, December 1977
  12. ^ a b Trautman, pp. 62-63
  13. ^ a b Crowley, Walt (September 8, 2001). "First Boeing Clipper, Model 314, lifts off from Elliott Bay on maiden flight on June 7, 1938". History Link. Retrieved September 10, 2024.
  14. ^ a b c d Trautman, pp. 57-60
  15. ^ Lombardi, Mike. "Eddie Allen, the dean of test pilots". Boeing. Retrieved September 26, 2020.
  16. ^ a b Bogash, Robert A. "In Search of an Icon: The Hunt for a Boeing B-314 Flying Boat, Pan American NC18601 – the Honolulu Clipper". Trains, Planes, and...... Retrieved July 31, 2011.
  17. ^ a b c d e f Trautman, p. 63
  18. ^ Griffith, pp. 119-120
  19. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Historical Engine Summary (Beginning 1930) (PDF), Woodridge, New Jersey: Wright Aeronautical Division – Curtis Wright Corporation, p. 13
  20. ^ Trautman, p. 157
  21. ^ a b c Swopes, Bryan R. (2017). "3-4 November 1945". This Day in Aviation. Retrieved September 19, 2024.
  22. ^ Griffith, p. 6
  23. ^ Trautman, p. 59
  24. ^ a b Lednicer, David. "The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage". m-selig.ae.illinois.edu. Retrieved January 30, 2024.
  25. ^ Bowers 1977a, pp. 28–35, 60–61
  26. ^ a b Trautman, pp. 61, 62
  27. ^ a b c d e f g Trautman, pp. 49, 50, 52, 53
  28. ^ a b c Trautman, pp. 54
  29. ^ Roemer, Nathan (2003). "British Airways Concorde". The Travel Scholar. Sound Message, LLC. Retrieved August 19, 2006.
  30. ^ Klaás 1989, p. 20
  31. ^ Klaás 1989, p. 64
  32. ^ Masland, William M. (1984). Through the Back Doors of the World in a Ship That Had Wings. New York: Vantage Press. ISBN 0-533-05818-X.
  33. ^ "FAM Foreign Air Mail First Flights F14". Aerodacious. June 25, 2007.
  34. ^ "Transoceanic Travel and the Pan American Clippers". The Flying Clippers. Archived from the original on November 11, 2005.
  35. ^ Pomata, Anthony E. (April 21, 2001). "Boeing's Model 314 Clipper Flying Boat". HistoryLink.org.
  36. ^ Klaás 1989, pp. 17, 20
  37. ^ a b Balfour, Harold (1973). Wings over Westminster. London: Hutchinson. pp. 141–155. ISBN 0091143705.
  38. ^ a b c Follett, Ken (1991). "Author's Note". Night over water. New York: William Morrow and Company. p. 399. ISBN 0-688-04660-6. LCCN 91017701.
  39. ^ Hardesty 2003, pp. 37–41
  40. ^ a b Bull, John (August 2014). "The Long Way Round: The Plane that Accidentally Circumnavigated the World". Lapsed Historian. Medium. Retrieved September 6, 2020.
  41. ^ Brock 1978, chapter VI
  42. ^ Swanborough, Gordon; Bowers, Peter M. (1976). United States Navy Aircraft since 1911 (2nd ed.). Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. p. 416. ISBN 0-87021-968-5.
  43. ^ Wolfert, Ira (February 8, 1942). "Feminine 'Grease Monkeys' Girls Tune Up Giant Planes". The Miami News. p. 1.
  44. ^ "[Airport] Building Equipment: Heating, Lighting, Power, Service Outlets." (New) Pencil Points, February 1943, 61.
  45. ^ Brock 1978, p. 224 Brock also reports cheap postwar availability to Pan Am of DC-4s and "Connies" was an important factor.
  46. ^ Klaás 1990, p. 78
  47. ^ Feb 22, 1943. Crash of a Boeing 314A Clipper off Lisbon: 24 killed. : Bureau of Aircraft Accidents Archives [1]
  48. ^ Klaás 1993, pp. 16–18
  49. ^ "Corporations' Annual Reports : B.O.A.C." Flight: 634. November 25, 1948. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016.
  50. ^ "From Pan Am to BOA: First of three Boeing 314—As now on British Empire Routes". Flight. June 26, 1941. Archived from the original on June 17, 2019. Retrieved August 2, 2011.
  51. ^ "ASN Aircraft accident Boeing 314A NC18603 Lisboa". Aviation Safety Network. Retrieved August 2, 2011.
  52. ^ Morris, Ted. "Air-Sea Rescue at Ocean Station Charlie: The Bibb & Bermuda Sky Queen". The collected articles and photographs of Ted A. Morris, Lieutenant Colonel, U.S. Air Force, Retired. Archived from the original on July 3, 2010. Retrieved July 31, 2011.
  53. ^ Roberts, Andrew (2018). Churchill: Walking with Destiny. London: Allen Lane (Penguin). pp. 707, 708. ISBN 978-0-241-20563-1.
  54. ^ Lavery, Brian (2007). Churchill Goes to War: Winston's Wartime Journeys. Annapolis, Maryland: The Naval Institute Press. p. 94. ISBN 978-1-59114-103-7.
  55. ^ Kelly Rogers, John Cecil (February 2, 1942). "The Churchill Flight: His Pilot Reports the Trip to England". Life. pp. 28, 30.
  56. ^ Allen, Mark; Johnston, Jeff (November 2005). "Seattle Company Announces Search for Pan American Airways Flying Boat" (PDF). Clipper Discovery Update: Underwater Admiralty Sciences Newsletter. pp. 1, 12. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 21, 2011. Retrieved September 16, 2009.
  57. ^ Johnston, Jeff (July 2007). "Project Update" (PDF). Clipper Discovery Update: Underwater Admiralty Sciences Newsletter. pp. 1, 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 30, 2011. Retrieved September 16, 2009.
  58. ^ Bartly, Nancy (September 25, 2011). "Money sought to retrieve submerged Boeing Flying Clippers". The Seattle Times. Archived from the original on June 7, 2014. Retrieved June 5, 2014.
  59. ^ "Our Replica". Foynes Flying Boat Museum. Archived from the original on January 20, 2011. Retrieved December 2, 2007.
  60. ^ Bridgeman 1989, p. 211
  61. ^ "Smith Corona Typewriter Serial Numbers". The Typewriter Database. Retrieved April 17, 2023.

Bibliography

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